FRAMING THE RESPONSIBILITY OF PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS (PPPS) ON SPACE TECHNOLOGY IN INTERNATIONAL LAW

Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) have gained popularity as a way to use resources and expertise from the private sector to support governmental space activities. In the event of a space-related incident, the division of duties and liabilities between public and private partners may be complicated. Clarifying the division of duties and liabilities between public and private actors is necessary, given the rising participation of private companies in space activities. With the growing involvement of private entities in space activities, there is a need to clarify the allocation of responsibilities and liabilities between public and private actors. Who is held responsible when a private company causes a technological disaster strike? On what basis can the responsibility be made, understood from international law? The research is normative legal research, where the data is collected through a statutory and case approach. The study results show that Public-private partnerships (PPPs) in outer space activities raise complex questions regarding responsibility. Responsibility refers to the Liability Convention on the Outer Space Treaty. The treaty emphasizes that states bear international responsibility for their national activities in outer space, including those conducted by private entities under their jurisdiction. However, the treaty does not explicitly address the specific responsibilities of private actors. Private companies only bear indirect international responsibility. PPPs need to consider the notion of shared responsibility, which acknowledges the contributions of both public and private actors and emphasizes cooperation and transparency.


A. INTRODUCTION
Scientific and technological advances are driving rapid global change.The waves of technological change have driven economic development and social transformation.We are now in the fourth industrial revolution. 3New technologies, for example, the internet, and the potential application of these technologies are rapidly expanding.Some aspects of the development of technology, Framing The Responsibility Of Public-Private Partnerships (Ppps) On Space Technology In International Law creating a new landscape for the governance of space technology. 5In its essence, technology facilitates human beings to meet their needs.The more advanced technology arrives, the more comfortable and adventurous a person's life becomes.One of them is exploration of outer space.Commercialization and privatization of outer space have taken place intensively in the last two decades. 6On May 24, 2012 SpaceX's Dragon capsule was launched and, in doing so, became the first commercially built vehicle to berth with and carry cargo to the International Space Station (ISS). 7It successfully completed its mission and returned to the Pacific Ocean on May 31, 2012. 8In 2021, the VSS Unity Galactic spacecraft fulfilled Richard Branson's dream of embarking on space travel. 9The New Shepard vehicle developed by Blue Origin successfully launched Bezos into space, and so he enjoyed his space tourism. 10The global space tourism market size was valued at USD 695.1 million in 2022.It is expected to expand at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) 0f 40.2 % from 2023 to 2030. 11The phenomenon has placed non-governmental entities as the main actors in the exploration of outer space. 12he Outer Space law does not explicitly mention the term" commercialization," but it does not mean that the exploration of outer See Reuters, "SpaceX to Raise $750 Million At $137 Billion Valuation -CNBC", https://www.reuters.com/markets/deals/spacex-raise-750-million-137-billion-valuation-cnbc-2023-01-03/,accessed 1 May 2023.

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Volume 7, Number 2, June 2023 accommodations, and all meals included. 18The number of space tourism activities will continue to grow and skyrocket in the coming years.The growth of space tourism done by spacefaring companies in the following years will likely create legal problems in the case of damage.
While PPPs offer numerous benefits, such as innovation, efficiency, and costeffectiveness, they also raise complex questions regarding responsibility and liability.Technological or man-made hazards can happen in space activities.These are examples of space technological accidents: the Apollo 12 accident in 1969, the Challenger accident in 1986, the Mir-18 accident in 1995, the Space Shuttle Columbia incident in 2003, the ISS Expedition 36 accident in 2013, the Virgin Galatic accident in 2014, and the SpaceX explosion in 2016. 19e responsibility of PPPs in space activities is an issue that has received considerable attention in recent years, both from policymakers and legal scholars. 20The allocation of responsibilities and liabilities between public and private entities is a crucial aspect of ensuring the responsible and sustainable use of space technology. 21This is particularly important as the number of private entities engaged in space activities continues to grow, raising questions about the extent of their legal obligations and responsibilities.The bigger question emerges as now the trend of using space technology becomes more commercial and it is run by private companies.Who is held responsible when a technological disaster strikes?Could private companies have direct international responsibility under International Law?
International space law provides the framework for addressing the legal aspects of PPPs' responsibilities in space activities.The 18 Ibid.

19
Outer Space Treaty, which forms the cornerstone of international space law, sets out the fundamental principles governing the exploration and use of outer space. 22While the treaty places primary responsibility on states for their national activities in outer space, it does not explicitly address the specific responsibilities of private entities.
The systematics of this article is as follows: First, this article will explain PPPs on space technology in international law, including the role of PPPs in space technology and international regulations on the utilization of technology in outer space activities.Second, the approaches to framing responsibility in PPPs on space technology in international law, such as the use of the shared responsibility models, will be explained, including the explanation of the extension of the state responsibility and the shared responsibility model.Third, this section will give a conclusion that PPPs' responsibilities must be clearly defined.

B. PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS ON SPACE TECHNOLOGY IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 1. Role of Public-Private Partnership in
Space Technology Space exploration and technology have traditionally been the domain of governments and state-funded agencies. 23However, in recent years, there has been a significant shift towards the involvement of private entities in space activities.This shift has given rise to the emergence of public-private partnerships (PPPs) in the field of space technology.PPPs are collaborative arrangements between governments and private entities aimed at achieving a common goal through the sharing of resources, risks, and responsibilities. 24These partnerships, which bring together the 21 M. Palmroth, et.all, "Toward Sustainable Use of Space:  Economic, Technological, and Legal Perspectives",  Space Policy Journal, Vol.57, (2021) at 11-14.22   Fengna Xu, Jinyuan Su, Miqdad Mehdi, "A Re-Examination of Fundamental Principles of International Space Law at the Dawn of Space Mining", Journal Space Law, Vol.44, No. 1 (2020), at 1.
Framing The Responsibility Of Public-Private Partnerships (Ppps) On Space Technology In International Law expertise, resources, and capabilities of both public and private sectors, play a crucial role in shaping the future of space exploration and utilization. 25PPPs have been increasingly used in commercial outer space activities to leverage public and private resources, reduce costs, and promote innovation. 26PPs in commercial outer space activities involve a wide range of activities, such as the development of new launch systems, satellite technology, and space tourism. 27For example, NASA has established partnerships with private companies, such as SpaceX and Boeing, to develop and launch spacecraft to the International Space Station. 28PPs in commercial outer space activities can take various forms, such as contracts, grants, joint ventures, and equity investments. 29overnments can gain from private sector innovation and investment, while private enterprises can access government funds, resources, and knowledge through these collaborations.PPPs are used in space activities for a number of reasons: 1. Cost sharing: Space infrastructure and technology development need significant investments that may be outside the scope of any one actor.Governments can share the costs and hazards of space activities by working with private enterprises, which can make space exploration and use more inexpensive and sustainable.

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Volume 7, Number 2, June 2023 In general, the use of public-private partnerships in space activities provides a mechanism to combine the advantages and assets of the public and private sectors and to advance ethical and sustainable space exploration and usage.However, PPPs in commercial outer space activities also pose challenges and risks, such as the allocation of risks and liabilities, intellectual property rights, and regulatory compliance.For example, there may be disagreements between the government and private companies over the ownership and control of space assets or over the extent of liability in case of accidents or damage caused by space activities.To address these challenges, governments and private companies can establish clear legal frameworks and agreements that define the roles, responsibilities, and obligations of each party, as well as the conditions for the transfer of technology and intellectual property rights.Governments can also establish regulatory frameworks that promote safety, sustainability, and international cooperation in commercial outer space activities.
Based on that explanation, we know that the private sector's growing involvement in space technology has brought about significant changes in the space industry.The commercialization of space, technological advancements, cost reductions, entrepreneurial spirit, and public-private partnerships have collectively paved the way for private entities to contribute to space exploration, satellite development, and other space-related activities.The increasing collaboration between the private and public sectors holds the promise of unlocking new frontiers in space and driving innovation for the benefit of humanity.

International Regulations on Utilization of Technology in Outer Space Activities a. The Outer Space Treaty
International regulations on the utilization of technology in outer space activities refer to the various agreements, treaties, and guidelines that govern the peaceful exploration and use of outer space.The primary aim of these regulations is to ensure that space activities are conducted in a safe, responsible, and sustainable manner and that all nations have equal access to the benefits of space technology.
The Outer Space Treaty, formally known as the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, is an international treaty that serves as the cornerstone of space law. 35It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on January 27, 1967, and entered into force on October 10, 1967. 36The Outer Space Treaty has been ratified by over 110 countries, making it one of the most widely accepted treaties in the field of international law. 37e key principles of the Outer Space Treaty are aimed at ensuring the peaceful and cooperative use of outer space while preventing its weaponization and territorial appropriation.Some of the important provisions of the treaty include 38  States bear international responsibility for their national activities in space, whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental entities.
e. Responsibility and Liability: The treaty holds governments accountable for their personnel's behavior and their space activities, according to Articles VI and VII.States are responsible for any harm their spacecraft may do and are required to pay damages as a result of their actions.
f. International Cooperation: The importance of international cooperation in the exploration and utilization of space is emphasized by the treaty, according to Article IX.States are urged to share their scientific findings and work together to advance space technology for everyone's benefit.
The Outer Space Treaty served as the basis for future international conventions and agreements pertaining to space law, including the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts, and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space.It continues to serve as the primary legal framework for space activities, promoting peaceful cooperation, preventing conflicts, and ensuring the responsible and sustainable exploration and use of outer space for the benefit of humanity.

b. Other Relevant International Agreements on Space Activities
In addition to the Outer Space Treaty, there are several other relevant international agreements and conventions that govern space activities.These agreements address specific aspects of space law and provide additional guidelines and regulations for the exploration and use of outer space.Some of the notable international agreements on space activities include: a. Rescue Agreement: The Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts, and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, adopted in 1968, establishes the obligation of states to promptly assist and rescue astronauts in distress, as well as facilitate the return of astronauts and space objects to their country of origin.39b.Liability Convention: The Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, adopted in 1972, addresses the issue of liability for damage caused by space objects.It establishes the liability of launching states for damages caused on Earth or to other space objects and sets out the principles and procedures for compensation.collaboration in telecommunications is promoted by the ITU's Radio Regulations, which ensure effective use of the radio frequency spectrum and orbital resources while preventing detrimental interference. 44

The State Responsibility for National Activities in Outer Space
State responsibility in international law refers to the legal obligation of states to comply with their international legal obligations and the legal consequences that arise when a state breaches those obligations.Framing The Responsibility Of Public-Private Partnerships (Ppps) On Space Technology In International Law space shall require authorization and continuing supervision by the state concerned.When activities are carried out in outer space by an international organization, responsibility for compliance with the principles set forth in this Declaration shall be borne by the international organization and by the States participating in it. 46e legal consequences of state responsibility may include reparations, compensation, or other forms of restitution for the harm caused by the state's actions. 47In some cases, other states or international organizations may take measures to ensure that the responsible state complies with its legal obligations or to prevent similar breaches of international law from occurring in the future.State responsibility is an important mechanism for promoting compliance with international legal rules and ensuring that states are held accountable for their actions in the international community. 48It helps to maintain the integrity and stability of the international legal system by ensuring that states are held responsible for their wrongful conduct and providing a means for redressing any harm caused by that conduct.
Direct state responsibility and indirect state responsibility are the two subcategories of state liability under international law. 49Direct state responsibility arises when a state commits an internationally wrongful act, either through its own actions or omissions. 50 On the other hand, indirect state responsibility arises when a state is held responsible for the actions of non-state actors or entities within its jurisdiction. 51.This responsibility may include situations where a state fails to prevent or punish the actions of private individuals or groups who engage in conduct that violates international law. 52For example, if a state fails to take action to prevent a private company from polluting a river that flows into another state, it may be held indirectly responsible for the harm caused by the pollution.The state's responsibility to protect other states and citizens from any actions; the state has an obligation to use due diligence process in the application of international standards to prevent, resist, and cease any violations of the rights of states, including the rights of its citizen, carried out within jurisdiction, and done by anyone who acts in the capacity as state officials. 53th direct and indirect state responsibility are essential mechanisms for promoting compliance with international legal obligations and ensuring that states are held accountable for their actions in the international community.However, the determination of state responsibility in each case will depend on the specific facts and circumstances involved, as well as the applicable rules and principles of international law.

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Volume 7, Number 2, June 2023 State responsibility for national activities in outer space refers to the legal obligations and liabilities that states assume for the actions and conduct of their government agencies, entities, and nationals in space. 54States are held accountable for their space activities under international space law as sovereign entities. 55Article VI the Outer Space states that States have a duty to authorize and supervise their national activities in outer space. 56e notion of due diligence is reflected in state responsibility for national actions in space, which calls for governments to take every precautionary measure possible to avoid harm and to uphold their commitments to international agreements.To encourage the responsible and sustainable use of space, it highlights the necessity of solid national regulatory frameworks, monitoring systems, and international collaboration.States contribute to the peaceful and equitable development of space operations and the preservation of outer space as a common resource for the advantage of current and future generations by adhering to their commitments.

The Liability Convention and Its Implication in Space Technology
An international agreement that covers the topic of liability for damage brought on by space objects is the Liability Convention, commonly known as the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects.Adopted by the General Assembly in its Resolution 27777 (XXVI) in September 1972, 57 The convention provides a legal framework for determining the liability of launching states for damages caused on Earth or to other space objects.The convention addresses the issue of liability in cases where damage occurs in the territory of another state.It ensures that the state where the damage occurs has the right to seek compensation from the launching state, regardless of whether the damage was caused on land, in airspace, or on the high seas. 60In the Corfu Channel case, the International Court of Justice held that every state is obliged "not to allow knowingly its territory to be used for acts contrary to the stability and secure third-party liability insurance. 66e Liability Convention is a crucial tool for governing the liability issues of space technology.It promotes accountability and ensures that launching states bear the responsibility for the consequences of their space activities.By establishing a clear framework for liability and compensation, the convention contributes to the safe and responsible development of space technology, encourages the adoption of risk mitigation measures, and protects the interests of states and individuals affected by space-related damages.
In the event of a space technological disaster, responsibility for the damage caused may be attributed to a variety of parties depending on the specific circumstances of the incident.Generally speaking, responsibility may be attributed to the following: a.The state that authorized and supervised the space activity: Under international space law, states are responsible for their space activities and must authorize and supervise the activities of private entities such as companies.The obligations of the public and private parties in a PPP must be clearly defined.It is crucial that all parties engaged in space activities take the necessary precautions to avert disasters and uphold their legal commitments to protect people, property, and the environment.

Aligned Objectives and Performance Metrics:
In order to represent the partnership's common objectives and expected results, the PPPs should define congruent objectives and performance measures. 75

Risk Assessment and Mitigation:
A comprehensive risk assessment should be conducted to identify potential risks and uncertainties associated with the PPPs. 764. Legal and Regulatory Framework: A clear legal and regulatory framework that oversees space activities should be used to operate the PPPs. 77Regarding space exploration, satellite operations, and data protection, this entails adhering to international treaties, national laws, and regulations.

Resource Allocation and Financial
Responsibility: The Using these strategies, PPPs on space technology can create a solid foundation for accountability, assuring successful stakeholder involvement, risk management, compliance, and collaboration.It makes it easier to accomplish shared objectives and encourages space technology's ethical and sustainable advancement.

Extension of State Responsibility
The extension of state responsibility in the framework of PPPs on space technology involves the assignment of specific duties to the participating government or state institution.While the private sector contributes its knowledge, capital, and inventiveness to the partnership, the government plays a crucial role in guaranteeing adherence to legal responsibilities, protecting the interests of the general public, and upholding overall responsibility.Following are some state responsibility facets that might be expanded in PPPs for space technologies.: 1.
Compliance The government is accountable for ensuring that the PPPs' private partner's operations adhere to applicable international laws and treaties.These agreements set forth space exploration, use, and liability rules.States are obligated to adhere to and enforce the responsibilities outlined in these treaties as party parties, even when participating in PPPs.

2.
Regulatory Oversight Even in the context of PPPs, the government is responsible for creating and upholding the regulatory frameworks and standards that regulate space activities.Through regulatory oversight, the government ensures that the private partner's actions comply with local, state, federal, and international laws, safeguarding the public interest and reducing risks.

Safety and Security
The use of space technology has an impact on sovereignty and national security.
Governments have a responsibility to defend national security interests and make sure that PPPs related space activities do not jeopardize national security.By extending state responsibility, governments can continue to exercise monitoring, control, and decisionmaking power over key components of space technology that have an influence on national security.4.

Liability and Compensation
Governments have the inherent authority and regulatory power to oversee and regulate space activities within their jurisdiction.This authority extends to PPPs, where the government acts as a regulatory body to enforce compliance with legal and safety standards.Through regulatory oversight, the government ensures that the private partner's actions align with national and international regulations, protecting the public interest and mitigating risks.

Public
Interest and Ethical Considerations The government must protect the public interest and ensure that the PPP aligns with more general societal goals.Space activities significantly impact citizen welfare, environmental sustainability, and national security.

Long-term Sustainability
The government is essential in fostering the PPP's long-term viability of space activities.

Compliance with National Laws
PPPs on space technology must comply with national laws and regulations.
Governments have the authority to establish and enforce these laws, ensuring that the activities of the private partner align with national legal requirements.
While the private sector brings innovation, expertise, and efficiency to PPPs on space technology, the extension of state responsibility helps maintain overall governance, compliance, and accountability.

Shared Responsibility Model
A non-governmental entity in space is defined as an entity not established by and does not act on behalf of the respective government.A non-governmental entity is a private company operating a space-port launch, communications satellite, and investment.The involvement of private companies in outer space activities is becoming increasingly relevant due to the growth of the space industry and the privatization of space exploration.Private companies have the financial resources, technical expertise, and innovative capacity to play an essential role in space activities, such as satellite launches, space tourism, and resource extraction.
Private Companies involved in outer space activities are subject to international law, including the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 and other international agreements that govern the exploration and use of outer space.These agreements recognize the responsibility

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Volume 7, Number 2, June 2023 of states to ensure that their activities in outer space are carried out in accordance with international law and that they are liable for any damage caused by their space objects.National laws and regulations, such as those governing space launches and the regulation of space activities by national space agencies, also apply to private companies.For instance, the Commercial Space Launch Act was formed in the US, which controls the launch and reentry of commercial spacecraft and necessitates that businesses get permits from the Federal Aviation Administration.
The public actions carried out by nongovernmental organizations are the responsibility of the state.When a national or multinational firm acts on behalf of the state to confuse the law by launching space objects on international territory, this can constitute a disruption to the rule of law and justice.It is crucial to understand that numerous parties may sometimes share blame for a space technology disaster.For instance, it may be determined that the state and the private business engaged in a space operation are both accountable for a disaster brought on by a flaw in their authorization and oversight procedures.
Shared responsibility is an important concept in international space law and may play a role in determining liability for an outer space disaster caused by a private company.It is important for all parties involved in space activities to take appropriate measures to prevent disasters from occurring and to fulfill their obligations under international law to prevent harm to people, property, and the environment.Attributing responsibility for a space technological disaster is a complex process that requires a thorough investigation of the incident and an assessment of the legal and factual circumstances surrounding the incident.Shared responsibility in international law is the sharing of international responsibilities among multiple actors who contribute to injury to third parties.including the specific context, legal frameworks, and policy objectives.A balanced approach combining shared responsibility with the extension of state responsibility can lead to effective governance, responsible conduct, and realizing the benefits of space activity while ensuring the protection of public interest and safety.

Case of PPPs' Responsibility on Space Tourism and Passenger Safety
The tragic event involving the Virgin Galactic spacecraft SpaceShipTwo during a test flight in 2014 is one case in point demonstrating the significance of PPPs' responsibilities in space tourism and passenger safety. 82In this case, Virgin Galactic, a private company, entered into a PPP with various public entities, including NASA and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), to develop and operate commercial space tourism flights. 83fter the disaster, both the private partner, Virgin Galactic, and the public partners engaged came under more criticism for their roles in the tragedy.After conducting a thorough examination, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) found crucial issues such as insufficient oversight, insufficient training, and insufficient safety precautions. 84This situation demonstrated the necessity for improved regulatory monitoring and distinct roles in PPPs for space tourism.The tragedy caused the FAA to examine and improve its rules and licensing requirements for commercial space launches, putting a greater emphasis on safety and risk mitigation.
Following the disaster, Virgin Galactic made considerable adjustments to its safety procedures, design procedures, and crew training. 85Along with other private space  86 The company is working in close collaboration with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to ensure that its products meet stringent safety standards.In addition, Virgin Galactic is actively engaging with the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) to ensure that its space tourism services are in compliance with international law.This instance highlights the fact that private partners and regulatory bodies share responsibilities for safeguarding the security of tourists engaging in space travel. 87.Overall, this case serves as a reminder that PPPs in space tourism must prioritize safety, adhere to robust regulatory frameworks, and continuously assess and improve their operations to safeguard passengers.It highlights the critical role of both public and private partners in upholding their responsibilities and working together to create a safe and sustainable environment for space tourism.

D. CONCLUSION
The growing involvement of the private sector in space technology brings forth opportunities for innovation, efficiency, and resource mobilization.However, it also necessitates careful attention to the allocation of responsibilities, compliance with legal frameworks, and the protection of public interest.The Outer Space Treaty serves as a foundational instrument that outlines the general principles guiding space activities, including the responsibility of states for national activities in outer space.Furthermore, other relevant international agreements, such as the Liability Convention, play a crucial role in addressing liability and compensation issues in space technology ventures.These agreements support the development of a responsibility framework and guarantee that galactics-efforts-to-improve-space-tourism-safetystandards/, accessed 5 May 2023.

86
Martin Frackiewcs, "Virgin Galatic's Role in Space Tourism Regulation", TS2, 2023, the risks and repercussions that may be connected to space operations are adequately addressed.
For efficient governance, risk management, and resource allocation in space technology, PPP responsibilities must be clearly defined.Roles are clearly defined, goals are congruent, and performance measures are established, enabling coordinated collaboration and guaranteeing that the partnership's actions are focused on shared objectives.Furthermore, effective monitoring, evaluating, and accountability procedures offer a way to gauge the partnership's development and hold each party accountable for their deeds.Legal justifications, such as compliance with international law, public interest protection, regulatory authority, liability and compensation considerations, national security issues, and adherence to national laws, support the extension of state responsibilities in PPPs.The shared responsibility approach emphasizes strategy alignment, complementary expertise, risk sharing, ongoing communication, and recognizing the collaborative character of PPPs.

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According to the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, adopted in 1975, governments are required to register their spacecraft with the UN.Registration increases transparency and makes it easier to determine who is responsible for space operations by providing details about the ownership, trajectory, and characteristics of space objects. 41d.Moon Agreement: In 1979, The Agreement on the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies created a framework for using and defending the Moon and other celestial bodies.It highlights the shared legacy of humanity, forbids resource extraction without a global agreement, and encourages collaboration in scientific research and the nonviolent study of celestial bodies. 42e.Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines: The International Law Commission's Draft Articles on State Responsibility governed the rules and principles of state responsibility (ILC Draft).Under Article 2 ILC Draft, a state may be held responsible for an internationally wrongful act if the act is attributable to the state and constitutes a breach of an international legal obligation . 45he act must also cause harm to another state or to the international community as a whole.Besides that, Article 5 the Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Uses of Outer 45Ibid and see alsoAlain Pellet, The Law Of International  Responsibility Oxford Commentaries On International  Law, in James Crawford, Alain Pellet & Simon Olleson  Eds., Oxford, 2010.
Indian Review of Advanced Legal Research, 2021, international law, or both.For example, if a state launches a military attack on another state in violation of the United Nations Charter, it would be directly responsible for the resulting harm caused.
48Gonzalo Sanchez de Tagle, "The Objective International Responsibility of States in the Inter-American Human Rights System", Mexican Law ReviewVol.7,No, 2  (2015).49 IRALR, "State Responsibility in International Law", The Liability 54 Bin Cheng, "International Responsibility and Liability of States for National Activities in Outer Space, Especially by Non-governmental Entities", 1997, at 621-622.
Trevor Kehrer, "Closing the Liability Loophole: The Liability Convention and the Future of Conflict in Space", Chicago Journal of International Law, Vol. 20, No. 1 (2019) at 178-179.Christol, "International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects", The American Journal of International Law, Vol 74, No. 2 (1980) at 353.
National Transportation "Safety Board, In-Flight Breakup During Test Flight Scaled Composites Spaceship Two, Aerospace Accident Report, 2014, https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/AccidentReports/Reports/AAR1502.pdf,accessed 1 March 2023.Virgin Galatic's Efforts to Improve Space Tourism safety Standards", 2023, https://ts2.space/en/virgin-PadjadjaranJournal of International Law Volume 7, Number 2, June 2023 tourism companies, the company saw the need to work closely with regulatory bodies to guarantee adherence to safety guidelines and industry best practices.