An Analysis of the Sanctions Imposed by the United Nations Security Council to Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait in 1990 within the Context of International Law Legal Analysis of UN Security Council Sanctions on Iraq's 1990 Invasion of Kuwait: A Normative Study on Charter Violations and Implementation Challenges
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Abstract
The United Nations Security Council is the sole international body empowered to utilize both civilian and military forces to maintain global peace and security. Iraq's invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990, breached international peace. In response, the Security Council imposed economic and military sanctions. Through Resolution 678, the Security Council authorized the use of any necessary means, including military action, to compel Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait and restore Kuwaiti sovereignty. The United States-led Coalition Military used this resolution to justify unlimited military action against Iraq. This study aims to ascertain the arrangements and forms of sanctions the Security Council imposed and analyze its implementation of military sanctions against Iraq in 1991. The study employs a normative legal research approach with a prescriptive specification. The findings demonstrate that the Security Council's authority to impose sanctions is outlined in Articles 39, 41, and 42 of the UN Charter. However, in imposing military sanctions on Iraq, the Security Council failed to fulfill several Charter obligations. Firstly, it did not obtain the unanimous consent of permanent members before voting on Resolution 678, which authorized military sanctions. Secondly, no special agreement between member states was made for the transfer of military personnel or the provision of necessary facilities, as required by Article 42. Thirdly, the formation of a Military Staff Committee to command the implementation of military sanctions was not established, as obligated by Articles 45 through 47. Fourthly, this sanction was not implemented by the principles of peaceful dispute resolution.
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Alfauzan, R. N., Yuliantiningsih , A., & Wismaningsih. (2026). An Analysis of the Sanctions Imposed by the United Nations Security Council to Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait in 1990 within the Context of International Law: Legal Analysis of UN Security Council Sanctions on Iraq’s 1990 Invasion of Kuwait: A Normative Study on Charter Violations and Implementation Challenges. Padjadjaran Journal of International Law, 9(2). https://doi.org/10.23920/pjil.v9i2.2052
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
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Eliza, E., Heryandi, H. and Syofyan, A. (2015) ‘INTERVENSI KEMANUSIAAN (HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION) MENURUT HUKUM INTERNASIONAL DAN IMPLEMENTASINYA DALAM KONFLIK BERSENJATA’, FIAT JUSTISIA:Jurnal Ilmu Hukum [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.25041/fiatjustisia.v8no4.316.
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Etty R. Agoes (2013) Peran Hukum dalam Pembangunan di Indonesia. Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya.
F. Sugeng Istanto (2010) Hukum Internasional. Yogyakarta: Universitas Atma Jaya.
Finn Seyersted (1963) Objective international Personality of Intergovernmental Organization: Do Their Capacities Really Depend Upon Their Conventions Establishing Them? Copenhagen: Krohns BogTrykkeri.
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Imber, M. (2006a) ‘The Reform of the UN Security Council’, International Relations, 20(3), pp. 328–334. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0047117806066710.
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Kirgis, F.L. (1997) ‘The Legal Background on the Use of Force to Induce Iraq to Comply with Security Council Resolutions’, The American Society of International Law, 2(1). Available at: https://www.asil.org/insights/volume/2/issue/1/legal-background-use-force-induce-iraq-comply-security-council-resolutions.
lan Brownlie (2008) Principles of Public lnternational Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mabro, R. (1994) ‘The Impact of the Gulf Crisis on World Oil and OPEC’, International Journal [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/40202937.
Malcolm N. Shaw (1991) International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Margot Horspool dan Matthew Humphreys (2006) European Union Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Martin Dixon (2013) Textbook on International Law. Oxford: , Oxford University Press.
Md Ramzan, M.F., Abdul Rahman, M.Z. and Mohd Daud, N. (2022) ‘Analisis Legitimasi Campur Tangan Kemanusiaan: Sorotan Terhadap Prinsip-Prinsip Asas Undang-Undang Antarabangsa’, Jurnal PERADABAN [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.22452/peradaban.vol15no1.2.
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Mochtar Kusumaatmadja dan Etty R Agoes (2003) Pengantar Hukum Internasional. Bandung: P.T Alumni.
Moffett, L. and Sandoval, C. (2021) ‘Tilting at windmills: Reparations and the International Criminal Court’, Leiden Journal of International Law, 34(3), pp. 749–769. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/S092215652100025X.
Mohamed Hassan, S.A. and Mohamed Ali, S.A. (2023) ‘Limitations On Warfare Methods: A Brief Examination Under International Humanitarian Law’, Journal of Advances in Humanities Research [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.56868/jadhur.v2i4.189.
O’Keefe, R. (2010) ‘Submission on the UK’s Legal Basis for Military Action in Iraq’, SSRN Electronic Journal [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3496748.
Peter Malanczuk (1997) Modern Introduction To International Law. New York: Routledge.
Phyllis Bennis (2003) Before and After-US Foreign Policy and The War on Terrorism. New York: Olive Branch Press.
Priest, T. (2012) ‘The Dilemmas of Oil Empire’, Journal of American History [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/jahist/jas065.
Rama Montaldo (1970) ‘lnternational Legal Personality and lmplied Powers of lnternational Organizations’, British Yearbook of International Law, 44(111).
Roth, M.S. and Fukuyama, F. (1993) ‘The End of History and the Last Man.’, History and Theory [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/2505352.
Ryan Dwi Saputra, M. (2021) ‘THE USE OF METHODS OR MEANS OF WARFARE WHICH CAUSED DAMAGE TO THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT BASED ON THE INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW’, Padjadjaran Journal of International Law [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.23920/pjil.v4i2.412.
Samekto, F.A. (1991) ‘Mengkaji Peran Operasi Pemeliharaan Perdamaian PBB Sebagai Bagian Upaya Menciptakan Perdamaian Dunia’, Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.21143/jhp.vol21.no1.395.
Sationo, T.I. (2019) ‘HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION MENURUT HUKUM INTERNASIONAL DAN IMPLIKASINYA DALAM KONFLIK BERSENJATA’, Widya Pranata Hukum : Jurnal Kajian dan Penelitian Hukum [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.37631/widyapranata.v1i1.255.
Schermers, H.G. and Blokker, N.M. (2004) ‘Preliminary Material’, in International Institutional Law. Brill | Nijhoff, pp. i–xxvi. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789047412748_001.
Selly, S. and Sumiyatun, S. (2023) ‘Keterlibatan Amerika Serikat di Bidang Ekonomi dan Militer Dalam Perang Teluk I Antara Irak-Iran (1980-1988)’, SWARNADWIPA [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.24127/sd.v6i1.2728.
Soehino (2005) Ilmu Negara. Yogyakarta: Liberty.
Sumaryo Suryokusumo (2007) Pengantar Hukum Organisasi Internasional. Jakarta.
Vereshchet, V.S. (1996) ‘New Constitutions and the Old Problem of the Relationship between International Law and National Law’, European Journal of International Law, 7(1), pp. 29–41. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.ejil.a015502.
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Werner Levi (1991) Contemporary International Law: A Concise Introduction. Colorado: Westview Press.
Weston, B.H. (1991) ‘Security Council Resolution 678 and Persian Gulf Decision Making: Precarious Legitimacy’, American Journal of International Law [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/2203110.
Yaqub, S. (2003) ‘U.S. Foreign Policy in the Middle East’, Reviews in American History [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1353/rah.2003.0083.
Ariestu, I.P.D. (2018) ‘The State Responsibilities Relating to Human Rights Violations to The People with Stateless Persons Status in Rohingnya Crisis’, Jurnal Magister Hukum Udayana (Udayana Master Law Journal) [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.24843/jmhu.2018.v07.i02.p02.
Barry M. Lando (2007) Web of Deceit, The History of Western Complicity in Iraq, From Chuschil to Kennedy to George W.Bush. New York: Other Press.
Basak Cali (2015) The Authority of International Law: Obedience, Respect, and Rebuttal. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bellamy, A.J. (2003) ‘FEATURE — LEGALITY OF THE USE OF FORCE AGAINST IRAQ International Law and the War with Iraq’, Melbourne Journal of Internaitonal Law [Preprint].
Brown, L.C. and Galbraith, P.W. (2006) ‘The End of Iraq: How American Incompetence Created a War without End’, Foreign Affairs, 85(5), p. 175. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/20032118.
Calogeropoulos-Stratis, A.S. (1992) ‘The humanitarian dimension of war — Protection of the individual, whether military or civilian’, International Review of the Red Cross [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0020860400070376.
D’Amato, A. (2009) The Coerciveness of International Law. Chicago. Available at: https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/facultyworkingpapers/91.
Defitri (2018) ‘Penegakan hukum terhadap penggunaan bom tandan (Cluster Bomb) dalam perang teluk III 2003 oleh militer Amerika Serikat di Irak ditinjau dari hukum humaniter internasional’, (Doctoral dissertation, Faculty of Social and Political Science) [Preprint].
Dekker, G. Den and Wessel, R.A. (1998) ‘Military Enforcement of Arms Control in Iraq’, Leiden Journal of International Law [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0922156598000363.
Dixon, M., McCorquodale, R. and Williams, S. (2011) Cases and Materials on International Law, Cases and Materials on International Law. Oxford University Press. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/he/9780199562718.001.0001.
Dodge, T. (2010) ‘The failure of sanctions and the evolution of international policy towards Iraq, 1990-2003’, Contemporary Arab Affairs [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/17550910903525952.
Eliza, E., Heryandi, H. and Syofyan, A. (2015) ‘INTERVENSI KEMANUSIAAN (HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION) MENURUT HUKUM INTERNASIONAL DAN IMPLEMENTASINYA DALAM KONFLIK BERSENJATA’, FIAT JUSTISIA:Jurnal Ilmu Hukum [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.25041/fiatjustisia.v8no4.316.
Esa Paasivirta (1997) ‘European Union: From an Aggregate of States to a Legal Person?’, Hofstra Law & Policy Symposium, 2(37).
Etty R. Agoes (2013) Peran Hukum dalam Pembangunan di Indonesia. Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya.
F. Sugeng Istanto (2010) Hukum Internasional. Yogyakarta: Universitas Atma Jaya.
Finn Seyersted (1963) Objective international Personality of Intergovernmental Organization: Do Their Capacities Really Depend Upon Their Conventions Establishing Them? Copenhagen: Krohns BogTrykkeri.
Fleck, D. and de Wet, E. (2006) ‘The Chapter VII Powers of the United Nations Security Council’, in International Peacekeeping: The Yearbook of International Peace Operations. Brill | Nijhoff, pp. 195–199. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004208452_012.
Fordham, B.O. (2007) ‘Revisionism Reconsidered: Exports and American Intervention in World War I’, International Organization, 61(02). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818307070105.
Galtung, J. (1991) ‘What Would Peace in the Middle East Be Like — and Is It Possible?’, Bulletin of Peace Proposals, 22(3), pp. 243–247. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/096701069102200301.
Gould, M. and Rablen, M.D. (2017) ‘Reform of the United Nations Security Council: equity and efficiency’, Public Choice, 173(1–2), pp. 145–168. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-017-0468-2.
Gray, C. (2002) ‘From Unity to Polarization: International Law and the Use of Force against Iraq’, European Journal of International Law, 13(1), pp. 1–19. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/13.1.1.
Hairi, N.A. (2023) ‘The Justifications for Saddam Invading Kuwait and the World Reaction’, Sains Insani [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.33102/sainsinsani.vol8no1.408.
Hakim, A.R. and Setiyono, J. (2019) ‘Problematika Negara Dan Dewan Keamanan Pbb Terhadap Konsep Unjust War’, Law Reform: Jurnal Pembaharuan Hukum, 15(2), pp. 164–176. Available at: https://doi.org/10.14710/lr.v15i2.26173.
Henderson, C. (2018) ‘Issues in Relation to Authorisation by the United Nations Security Council’, in The Use of Force and International Law. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139567565.005.
Hinchcliffe, P. and Milton-Edwards, B. (2007) Conflicts in the Middle East since 1945, Conflicts in the Middle East since 1945: Third Edition. Routledge. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203934432.
Hoogeveen, F. and Perlot, W. (2007) ‘The EU’s Policies of Security of Energy Supply Towards the Middle East and Caspian Region: Major Power Politics?’, Perspectives on Global Development and Technology, 6(1–3), pp. 485–507. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1163/156914907X207847.
Huala Adolf (no date) Aspek-Aspek Negara dalam Hukum Internasional. Bandung: CV Keni Media.
‘I. Legal Assessment of the Use of Force Against Iraq’ (2003) International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 52(4), pp. 1059–1063. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/iclq/52.4.1059.
Imber, M. (2006a) ‘The Reform of the UN Security Council’, International Relations, 20(3), pp. 328–334. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0047117806066710.
Imber, M. (2006b) ‘The Reform of the UN Security Council’, International Relations, 20(3), pp. 328–334. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0047117806066710.
‘Iraq under siege: the deadly impact of sanctions and war’ (2001) Choice Reviews Online, 38(05), pp. 38-2987-38–2987. Available at: https://doi.org/10.5860/CHOICE.38-2987.
JAMNEJAD, M. and WOOD, M. (2009) ‘The Principle of Non-intervention’, Leiden Journal of International Law, 22(2), pp. 345–381. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0922156509005858.
Kirgis, F.L. (1997) ‘The Legal Background on the Use of Force to Induce Iraq to Comply with Security Council Resolutions’, The American Society of International Law, 2(1). Available at: https://www.asil.org/insights/volume/2/issue/1/legal-background-use-force-induce-iraq-comply-security-council-resolutions.
lan Brownlie (2008) Principles of Public lnternational Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mabro, R. (1994) ‘The Impact of the Gulf Crisis on World Oil and OPEC’, International Journal [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/40202937.
Malcolm N. Shaw (1991) International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Margot Horspool dan Matthew Humphreys (2006) European Union Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Martin Dixon (2013) Textbook on International Law. Oxford: , Oxford University Press.
Md Ramzan, M.F., Abdul Rahman, M.Z. and Mohd Daud, N. (2022) ‘Analisis Legitimasi Campur Tangan Kemanusiaan: Sorotan Terhadap Prinsip-Prinsip Asas Undang-Undang Antarabangsa’, Jurnal PERADABAN [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.22452/peradaban.vol15no1.2.
Mello, P.A. (2012) ‘Parliamentary peace or partisan politics Democracies participation in the Iraq War’, Journal of International Relations and Development [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1057/jird.2012.11.
Mochtar Kusumaatmadja dan Etty R Agoes (2003) Pengantar Hukum Internasional. Bandung: P.T Alumni.
Moffett, L. and Sandoval, C. (2021) ‘Tilting at windmills: Reparations and the International Criminal Court’, Leiden Journal of International Law, 34(3), pp. 749–769. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/S092215652100025X.
Mohamed Hassan, S.A. and Mohamed Ali, S.A. (2023) ‘Limitations On Warfare Methods: A Brief Examination Under International Humanitarian Law’, Journal of Advances in Humanities Research [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.56868/jadhur.v2i4.189.
O’Keefe, R. (2010) ‘Submission on the UK’s Legal Basis for Military Action in Iraq’, SSRN Electronic Journal [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3496748.
Peter Malanczuk (1997) Modern Introduction To International Law. New York: Routledge.
Phyllis Bennis (2003) Before and After-US Foreign Policy and The War on Terrorism. New York: Olive Branch Press.
Priest, T. (2012) ‘The Dilemmas of Oil Empire’, Journal of American History [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/jahist/jas065.
Rama Montaldo (1970) ‘lnternational Legal Personality and lmplied Powers of lnternational Organizations’, British Yearbook of International Law, 44(111).
Roth, M.S. and Fukuyama, F. (1993) ‘The End of History and the Last Man.’, History and Theory [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/2505352.
Ryan Dwi Saputra, M. (2021) ‘THE USE OF METHODS OR MEANS OF WARFARE WHICH CAUSED DAMAGE TO THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT BASED ON THE INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW’, Padjadjaran Journal of International Law [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.23920/pjil.v4i2.412.
Samekto, F.A. (1991) ‘Mengkaji Peran Operasi Pemeliharaan Perdamaian PBB Sebagai Bagian Upaya Menciptakan Perdamaian Dunia’, Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.21143/jhp.vol21.no1.395.
Sationo, T.I. (2019) ‘HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION MENURUT HUKUM INTERNASIONAL DAN IMPLIKASINYA DALAM KONFLIK BERSENJATA’, Widya Pranata Hukum : Jurnal Kajian dan Penelitian Hukum [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.37631/widyapranata.v1i1.255.
Schermers, H.G. and Blokker, N.M. (2004) ‘Preliminary Material’, in International Institutional Law. Brill | Nijhoff, pp. i–xxvi. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789047412748_001.
Selly, S. and Sumiyatun, S. (2023) ‘Keterlibatan Amerika Serikat di Bidang Ekonomi dan Militer Dalam Perang Teluk I Antara Irak-Iran (1980-1988)’, SWARNADWIPA [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.24127/sd.v6i1.2728.
Soehino (2005) Ilmu Negara. Yogyakarta: Liberty.
Sumaryo Suryokusumo (2007) Pengantar Hukum Organisasi Internasional. Jakarta.
Vereshchet, V.S. (1996) ‘New Constitutions and the Old Problem of the Relationship between International Law and National Law’, European Journal of International Law, 7(1), pp. 29–41. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.ejil.a015502.
Voigt, S. (2006) ‘The Interplay between National and International Law - Its Economic Effects Drawing on Four New Indicators’, SSRN Electronic Journal [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.925796.
Watkins, M. and Rosegrant, S. (1996) ‘Sources of power in coalition building’, Negotiation Journal [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1571-9979.1996.tb00078.x.
Werner Levi (1991) Contemporary International Law: A Concise Introduction. Colorado: Westview Press.
Weston, B.H. (1991) ‘Security Council Resolution 678 and Persian Gulf Decision Making: Precarious Legitimacy’, American Journal of International Law [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/2203110.
Yaqub, S. (2003) ‘U.S. Foreign Policy in the Middle East’, Reviews in American History [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1353/rah.2003.0083.