Authoritarian Regimes and Reservations Towards International Human Rights Treaties: the Analysis of Malaysia, South Korea, and Indonesia
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Abstract
Examining the situations of Malaysia, South Korea, and Indonesia, this research investigates the problem and background of authoritarian regimes' opposition to international human rights treaties. Even while these nations have undergone transitions from authoritarianism to varied degrees of democratic administration, they have also shown reluctance to fully embrace international human rights principles and commitments. This article utilizes a qualitative method of research from documents deriving from the internet. Further, this article gives insight on the complex interplay between authoritarianism, national interests, and human rights obligations by analyzing domestic settings, institutional structures, and geopolitical operations. The article also emphasizes how these reservations affect how well international human rights treaties are implemented in these nations. By elucidating the complexities surrounding authoritarian regimes' reservations towards human rights treaties, this research contributes to a deeper understanding of the challenges faced in promoting and protecting human rights in diverse political contexts. Essentially, this article provides that not all authoritarian regimes neglect the protection of human rights.
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Nursyifa, S. A. (2026). Authoritarian Regimes and Reservations Towards International Human Rights Treaties: the Analysis of Malaysia, South Korea, and Indonesia. Padjadjaran Journal of International Law, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.23920/pjil.v10i2.2387
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
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Hill, Jr., Daniel W. “Avoiding Obligation: Reservations to Human Rights Treaties”, The Journal of Conflict Resolution 60, No. 6 (September 2016): 1129 - 1158
Koremenos, Barbara. “Loosening the Ties that Bind: A Learning Model of Agreement Flexibility.” International Organization 55 (2): 289–325.
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Neumayer, Eric. “Qualified Ratification: Explaining Reservations to International Human Rights Treaties”, The Journal of Legal Studies 36, No. 2 (June, 2007): 397 - 429
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Optional Protocol the Torture Convention (OPCAT) (opened for signature on 18 December 2002, entered into force on 22 June 2006)
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (opened for signatures on 6 October 1999, entered into force on 22 December 2000)
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict (OPAC) (opened for signature on 25 May, 2000, entered into force 12 February 2002) https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/crc-conflict.pdf
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography (opened for signature on 25 May 2000, entered into force on 18 January 2002) https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/crc-sale.pdf
The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (opened for signature on 20 November 1989, entered into force on September 1990)
Vienna Convention of the Law of Treaties (VCLT) (opened for signature 23 May 1969, entered into force on 27 January 1980)
4) Other Documents (Reports, Web sources, etc.)
“OHCHR | the Core International Human Rights Instruments and Their Monitoring Bodies.” n.d. OHCHR. https://www.ohchr.org/en/core-international-human-rights-instruments- and-their-monitoring-bodies. (Accessed 11 June 2023)
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Asia. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-51610974.
Diez Para, ed. n.d Review of Ratification of International Treaties, a Comparative Law
Perspective: United States of America., European Union (Brussels: European Parliamentary Research Service, 2020) https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2020/652013/EPRS_STU(2020 )652013_EN.pdf
Dominguez, Jorge I. “The Perfect Dictatorship? Comparing Authoritarian Rule in South Korea and in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Mexico”, delivery at the 2002 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, August 29–September 1, 2002, Boston, Panel 11–25. https://wcfia.harvard.edu/publications/perfect-dictatorship-comparing- authoritarian-rule-south-korea-and-argentina.
Draft Report on the Implementation of International Human Rights Treaties in Domestic Law and the Role od Courts, Study No. 690/2012, CDL(2014)046*. 26 Sep, 2014. Venice Commission.
Edwin, Donnie. “Hubungan Klientelisme Antara Presiden Soeharto Dengan TNI AD: Studi Kasus Pertamina Tahun 1970-1980,” Universitas Indonesia, 2019.
https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL(2014)046-e Media, Kompas Cyber. 2016. “Kontras Paparkan 10 Kasus Pelanggaran HAM Yang Diduga Melibatkan Soeharto.” KOMPAS.com. May 25, 2016.
https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2016/05/25/07220041/Kontras.Paparkan.10.Kasus.Pe
langgaran.HAM.yang.Diduga.Melibatkan.Soeharto. (Accessed 11 June 2023) Navanethem Pillay. “Are Human Rights Universal? | United Nations.” Un.org. United Nations.
2011. https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/are-human-rights-universal.
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, CCPR General Comment No. 24: Issues Relating to Reservations Made upon Ratification or Accession to the Covenant or the Optional Protocols thereto, or in Relation to Declarations under Article 41 of the
Covenant, CCPR/C/21/Rec.1/Add.6 (1994)
OHCHR. 2014. “OHCHR Dashboard.” Ohchr.org. 2014. https://indicators.ohchr.org/.
(Accessed 12 June 2023)
UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Report of the Committee on the
Elimination of Racial Discrimination A/36/18. New York: UN, 1981.
Youngsook-Cho, “The First CEDAW Impact Study: The Ratification and Reservations of CEDAW” Country Papers the First CEDAW Impact Study South Korea. Last modified
2010, http://iwrp.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/South-Korea.pdf.
Asruu, A. Muhammad. “The Crisis of Judicial Independence in Indonesia Under Soeharto Era”, Scientific Research Journal III, Issue VIII, (August, 2015): 6 - 11
C ̧ırakman, Aslı. “From Tyranny to Despotism: The Enlightenment’s Unenlightened Image of the Turks”, J. Middle East Stud 33, (2001): 49 - 68
Cotton, James. “From Authoritarianism to Democracy in South Korea”, Political Studies 37, Issue 2, (1989): 244 - 259
Feldman, Stanley, and Karen Stenner, “Perceived threat and authoritarianism”, Political Psychology 18, No. 4 (1997): 741 - 770
Glasius, Marlies, “What authoritarianism is... and is not: a practice perspective”, International Affairs 94, Issue 3 (May, 2018): 515 - 533
Gomez, Edmund Terence, and Jomo KS, “Authoritarianism, Elections, and Political Change in Malaysia” Public Policy II, No.3 (September 1998): 113 - 144
Hathaway, Oona A. “Why do Countries Commit to Human Rigths Treaties?”, Journal of Conflict Resolution 51, No. 4 (2017): 588 - 621
Hill, Jr., Daniel W. “Avoiding Obligation: Reservations to Human Rights Treaties”, The Journal of Conflict Resolution 60, No. 6 (September 2016): 1129 - 1158
Koremenos, Barbara. “Loosening the Ties that Bind: A Learning Model of Agreement Flexibility.” International Organization 55 (2): 289–325.
Leeds, Brett Ashley, Michaela Mattes, and Jeremy S. Vogel. “Interests, Institutions, and the Reliability of International Commitments.” American Journal of Political Science 53, No.2 (2009):461–476
Leeds, Brett Ashley. “Alliance Reliability in Times of War: Explaining State Decisions to Violate Treaties.” International Organization 57 (2003):801–827
Moustafa, Tamir. “Law and Courts in Authoritarian Regimes”, Annual Review of Law Social Sciences 10 (2014): 281 - 299
Neo, Jaclyn L. “Malaysia's First Report to the CEDAW Committee: A Landmark Event for Women's Rights in Malaysia,” Asian Yearbook of International Law 13 (2007): 303
Neumayer, Eric. “Do International Human Rights Treaties Improve Respect for Human Rights?”, Journal of Conflict Resolution 49, No. 6, (Dec, 2005): 925 - 953
Neumayer, Eric. “Qualified Ratification: Explaining Reservations to International Human Rights Treaties”, The Journal of Legal Studies 36, No. 2 (June, 2007): 397 - 429
Pais, M. Santos, and S. Bissell “Overview and implementation of the UN Convention on Rights of the Child”, Lancet 367, Issue 9511 (February, 2006): 689 - 690
Saraswati, Anak Agung Ayu Nanda. “The Discourse of Reservations to CEDAW on Women’s Rights in Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia”, Indonesian Journal of International Law 19, No. 4 (2022): 515 - 538
Tan, Simon. “The Rise of State Authoritarianism in Malaysia”, Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 22, No. 3 (1990): 32 - 42
Thambapillay, Sridevi. “THE 2017 A MENDMENTS TO THE L AW REFORM (MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE ) ACT 1976: A MILESTONE OR A STONE’S THROW IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MALAYSIAN FAMILY LAW”, IIUM Law Journal 28, No.2 (2020): 449 - 479
Wotipka, Christine Min and Kiyoteru Tsutsui, “Global Human Rights and State Sovereignty: State Ratification of International Human Rights Treaties, 1965–2001”, Sociological Forum 23, No. 4 (December 2008): 724 - 754
Zvobgo, Kelebogile, Wayne Sandholtz, and Suzie Mulesky, “Reserving Rights: Explaining Human Rights Treaty Reservation”, International Studies Quarterly 64, Issue 4 (2020): 785 -797
2) Books
Aspinall, Edward, and Ward Berenschot, Democracy for Sale: Elections, Clientelism, and the State in Indonesia. London: Cornell University Press, 2019.
Banton, Michael. International Action against Racial Discrimination (Clarendon Press, 1996) Dahl, Robert. Polyarchy: participation and opposition. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press,
1971.
Donnelly, Jack. Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice, 3rd ed. Ithaca and London:
Cornell University Press, 2013.
Kalu, Kalu N. A Functional Theory of Government, Law, and Institutions. Rowman &
Littlefield, 2019.
Moeckli, Daniel, Sangeeta Shah, etc. International Human Rights Law. Oxford University
Press, 2022.
Sharom, Azmi and Magdalen Spooner, The Spectra of Authoritarianism in Southeast Asia.
Bangkok, Thailand: SHAPE-SEA, 2019
Thornberry, Patrick. The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination: A Commentary. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018. 3) Legal Documents
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (opened for signatures on 1 March 1980, entered into force on 3 September 1981)
Indonesia. Law on International Treaty. Law No 24 Year 2000. Indonesia. Law on Basic Provisions of Judicial Power Law No. 19 Year 1964 (amended by Law No. 14 Year 1970)
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) ( opened for signature on 21 December 1965, entered into force on 4 January 1969) Optional Protocol on a Communications Procedure (opened for signature on 19 Dec 2011,
entered into force on 14 April 2014) https://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/2011/12/20111219%2003-15%20PM/CTC%204- 11d.pdf
Optional Protocol the Torture Convention (OPCAT) (opened for signature on 18 December 2002, entered into force on 22 June 2006)
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (opened for signatures on 6 October 1999, entered into force on 22 December 2000)
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict (OPAC) (opened for signature on 25 May, 2000, entered into force 12 February 2002) https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/crc-conflict.pdf
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography (opened for signature on 25 May 2000, entered into force on 18 January 2002) https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/crc-sale.pdf
The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (opened for signature on 20 November 1989, entered into force on September 1990)
Vienna Convention of the Law of Treaties (VCLT) (opened for signature 23 May 1969, entered into force on 27 January 1980)
4) Other Documents (Reports, Web sources, etc.)
“OHCHR | the Core International Human Rights Instruments and Their Monitoring Bodies.” n.d. OHCHR. https://www.ohchr.org/en/core-international-human-rights-instruments- and-their-monitoring-bodies. (Accessed 11 June 2023)
“United Nations Treaty Collection.” 2009. Un.org. Last modified 2023 https://treaties.un.org/. BBC News. 2020. “Malaysian PM Mahathir in Shock Resignation,” February 24, 2020, sec.
Asia. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-51610974.
Diez Para, ed. n.d Review of Ratification of International Treaties, a Comparative Law
Perspective: United States of America., European Union (Brussels: European Parliamentary Research Service, 2020) https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2020/652013/EPRS_STU(2020 )652013_EN.pdf
Dominguez, Jorge I. “The Perfect Dictatorship? Comparing Authoritarian Rule in South Korea and in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Mexico”, delivery at the 2002 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, August 29–September 1, 2002, Boston, Panel 11–25. https://wcfia.harvard.edu/publications/perfect-dictatorship-comparing- authoritarian-rule-south-korea-and-argentina.
Draft Report on the Implementation of International Human Rights Treaties in Domestic Law and the Role od Courts, Study No. 690/2012, CDL(2014)046*. 26 Sep, 2014. Venice Commission.
Edwin, Donnie. “Hubungan Klientelisme Antara Presiden Soeharto Dengan TNI AD: Studi Kasus Pertamina Tahun 1970-1980,” Universitas Indonesia, 2019.
https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL(2014)046-e Media, Kompas Cyber. 2016. “Kontras Paparkan 10 Kasus Pelanggaran HAM Yang Diduga Melibatkan Soeharto.” KOMPAS.com. May 25, 2016.
https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2016/05/25/07220041/Kontras.Paparkan.10.Kasus.Pe
langgaran.HAM.yang.Diduga.Melibatkan.Soeharto. (Accessed 11 June 2023) Navanethem Pillay. “Are Human Rights Universal? | United Nations.” Un.org. United Nations.
2011. https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/are-human-rights-universal.
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, CCPR General Comment No. 24: Issues Relating to Reservations Made upon Ratification or Accession to the Covenant or the Optional Protocols thereto, or in Relation to Declarations under Article 41 of the
Covenant, CCPR/C/21/Rec.1/Add.6 (1994)
OHCHR. 2014. “OHCHR Dashboard.” Ohchr.org. 2014. https://indicators.ohchr.org/.
(Accessed 12 June 2023)
UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Report of the Committee on the
Elimination of Racial Discrimination A/36/18. New York: UN, 1981.
Youngsook-Cho, “The First CEDAW Impact Study: The Ratification and Reservations of CEDAW” Country Papers the First CEDAW Impact Study South Korea. Last modified
2010, http://iwrp.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/South-Korea.pdf.