Legal Aspects of Effective Contribution to Military Action by Foreign States to a State in Conflict
Main Article Content
Abstract
This article explores the intricacies of effective contributions to military action, focusing on the legal aspects of foreign state assistance to states in conflict that affect the course of war. The analysis underscores the enormous challenge of determining where the lawfulness of acts by foreign states lies. This article examines international legal sources to find legal grounds for current actions. The purpose of this research is to analyze the legal aspects of effective contribution to military action by foreign states to a state in conflict and to examine the elements of International Law fulfilled in the actions. This research used normative legal research with qualitative analysis as the legal material analysis technique. Legal materials that had been collected, read, and understood were analyzed to address the problem formulation, whereby the results could be systematically justified. This research indicates that while effective military contributions can be justified under the rule of war and the rule of neutrality, the United States failed to fulfill legal obligations including Security Council notification. As a result, its actions breach the law of neutrality and constitute interference in the domestic affairs of another nation's sovereignty.
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How to Cite
Achmad Satriawan, A., & Hastuti, L. (2026). Legal Aspects of Effective Contribution to Military Action by Foreign States to a State in Conflict. Padjadjaran Journal of International Law, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.23920/pjil.v9i2.2415
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References
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Chen, Lung-chu. An Introduction to Contemporary International Law: A Policy-Oriented Perspective. Oxford University Press, 2014.
Melzer, Nils. International Humanitarian Law a Comprehensive Introduction. International Committee of the Red Cross, 2019. www.icrc.org.
Snyder, Craig. Contemporary Security and Strategy. Palgrave MacMillan, 2012.
Sujatmoko, Andrey. Hukum HAM Dan Hukum Humaniter. Rajawali Pers, 2016.
Other Documents
Andreev, K. “Evolution of U.S. Military Aid Priorities under Trump and Biden Administrations.” Analysis and Forecasting. IMEMO Journal, no. 1 (2024): 23–38. https://doi.org/10.20542/AFIJ-2024-1-23-38.
Austin, Lloyd. “Rincian Nilai Bantuan AS Kepada Ukraina (Februari 2022-Juli 2024).” U.S. Department of Defense, September 28, 2024. https://www.defense.gov/Spotlights/Support-for-Ukraine/Timeline/.
Baade, Björnstjern, Linus Mührel, and Anton O. Petrov. “Concluding Observations: How International Humanitarian Law Is Shaped to Meet the Challenges Arising from Areas of Limited Statehood – Theoretical Problems in Practice.” International Humanitarian Law in Areas of Limited Statehood, April 19, 2018, 217–40. https://doi.org/10.5771/9783845289557-217.
Bartosh, A. A. “Diplomacy in a Proxy War.” Diplomaticheskaja Sluzhba (Diplomatic Service), no. 1 (January 31, 2023): 33–42. https://doi.org/10.33920/VNE-01-2301-03.
Bates, Elizabeth Stubbins. “Towards Effective Military Training in International Humanitarian Law.” International Review of the Red Cross 96, no. 895–896 (December 1, 2014): 795–816. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1816383115000557.
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Drian, Jean Yves Le. “Council Decision (CFSP) 2022/338 of 28 February 2022 on an Assistance Measure under the European Peace Facility for the Supply to the Ukrainian Armed Forces of Military Equipment, and Platforms, Designed to Deliver Lethal Force.” Official Journal of the European Union II L 60/1 (February 28, 2022). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dec/2022/338/oj.
Ferran, Lee. “The Weapons and Equipment the US Has given Ukraine so Far.” BreakingDefense.com, December 23, 2023. 0https://breakingdefense.com/2022/05/infographic-the-weapons-and-equipment-the-us-has-given-ukraine-so-far/.
Ghag, Ashutosh, Mihir Govande, and Shweta Shukla. “Evaluating Arms Transfers in the Russia-Ukraine Conflict in the Light of the Arms Trade Treaty, State Responsibility, and the Law of Neutrality.” International and Comparative Law Review 23, no. 1 (August 1, 2023): 139–81. https://doi.org/10.2478/iclr-2023-0007.
Gibb, Arthur, Mark Crescenzi, Tom Carsey, and Navin Bapat. “Arms for Reforms: The Effectiveness of U.S. Military Assistance at Encouraging Human Rights Reforms.” University of North Carolina, 2010.
Green, James A., Christian Henderson, and Tom Ruys. “Russia’s Attack on Ukraine and the Jus Ad Bellum.” Journal on the Use of Force and International Law. Routledge, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/20531702.2022.2056803.
Hagelin, Björn. “Foreign Military Sales.” Neutrality and Foreign Military Sales, June 19, 2019, 49–85. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429044656-4/FOREIGN-MILITARY-SALES-BJ.
Hathaway, Oona, and Scott Shapiro. “Supplying Arms to Ukraine Is Not an Act of War.” Lawfare, March 12, 2022. https://www.lawfaremedia.org/article/supplying-arms-ukraine-not-act-war.
Heller, Kevin Jon, and Lena Trabucco. “The Legality of Weapons Transfers to Ukraine Under International Law.” Journal of International Humanitarian Legal Studies 13, no. 2 (2022): 251–74. https://doi.org/10.1163/18781527-bja10053.
Kremte, Henok Ashagrey, and Henok Ashagrey Kremte. “Minimizing Human Suffering and Protecting Persons Affected by Conflict: A Critical Appraisal of the Compliance System of International Humanitarian Law.” Beijing Law Review 8, no. 4 (November 17, 2017): 440–50. https://doi.org/10.4236/BLR.2017.84024.
Margulies, Peter. “At War with Itself: The DoD Law of War Manual’s Tension between Doctrine and Practice on Target Verification and Precautions in Attack.” The United States Department of Defense Law of War Manual: Commentary and Critique, January 11, 2019, 201–24. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108659727.010.
Marsh, Nicholas. “The Availability Puzzle: Considering the Relationship between Arms and Violence Taking Place within States” 6 (2018).
Petersen, Niels. “The International Court of Justice and the Judicial Politics of Identifying Customary International Law.” European Journal of International Law 28, no. 2 (May 1, 2017): 357–85. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chx024.
Putin, Vladimir. “Address by the President of the Russian Federation.” President of Russia, February 21, 2022. http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/67828.
Putin, Vladimir. “Signing of Documents Recognising Donetsk and Lugansk People’s Republics.” President of Russia, February 21, 2022. http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/67829.
Ramya, Kritika. “The Interplay between Neutrality, Qualified Neutrality and Co-Belligerency in the Context of U.S. Intervention in the Russia-Ukraine War.” International and Comparative Law Review 23, no. 1 (August 1, 2023): 72–94. https://doi.org/10.2478/iclr-2023-0004.
Schabas, William. “The Use of Force in the Nicaraguan Cases.” Nicaragua Before the International Court of Justice: Impacts on International Law, January 1, 2018, 305–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62962-9_13.
Schmitt, Michael. “Providing Arms and Materiel to Ukraine: Neutrality, Co-Belligerency, and the Use of Force.” Articles of War, March 7, 2022. https://lieber.westpoint.edu/ukraine-neutrality-co-belligerency-use-of-force/.
Spagnolo, Andrea. “The Armed Attack Against Ukraine and the Italian Reaction From a Ius Ad Bellum Perspective.” The Italian Review of International and Comparative Law, December 26, 2022, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1163/27725650-02020012.
Spoljaric, Mirjana. “Customary International Humanitarian Law.” International Committee of the Red Cross, July 12, 2024. https://www.icrc.org/en/war-and-law/treaties-customary-law/customary-law.
Wilson, Rachel. “Ukraine Aid: Where the Money Is Coming From.” CNN, March 20, 2024. https://edition.cnn.com/2023/10/05/world/ukraine-money-military-aid-intl-dg/index.html.
Yu, Yuehan, Shirao Liu, Yuanqing Li, and Kaifang Shi. “Satellite Remotely Sensed Nighttime Lights Reveal Spatiotemporal Dynamics of the Ukrainian-Russian Conflict.” IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters 20 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1109/LGRS.2023.3290559.
Zugliani, Niccolò. “The Supply of Weapons to a Victim of Aggression: The Law of Neutrality in Light of the Conflict in Ukraine.” European Journal of International Law 35, no. 2 (May 1, 2024): 389–410. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chae019.
Legal Documents
The United Nation Charter. 1945
Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, 2001
Krass, Caroline. Department of Defense Law of War Manual (Updated July 2023). Department of Defense, 2023.
Aron, Raymond. Clausewitz: Philosopher of War. Routledge, 2022.
Chen, Lung-chu. An Introduction to Contemporary International Law: A Policy-Oriented Perspective. Oxford University Press, 2014.
Melzer, Nils. International Humanitarian Law a Comprehensive Introduction. International Committee of the Red Cross, 2019. www.icrc.org.
Snyder, Craig. Contemporary Security and Strategy. Palgrave MacMillan, 2012.
Sujatmoko, Andrey. Hukum HAM Dan Hukum Humaniter. Rajawali Pers, 2016.
Other Documents
Andreev, K. “Evolution of U.S. Military Aid Priorities under Trump and Biden Administrations.” Analysis and Forecasting. IMEMO Journal, no. 1 (2024): 23–38. https://doi.org/10.20542/AFIJ-2024-1-23-38.
Austin, Lloyd. “Rincian Nilai Bantuan AS Kepada Ukraina (Februari 2022-Juli 2024).” U.S. Department of Defense, September 28, 2024. https://www.defense.gov/Spotlights/Support-for-Ukraine/Timeline/.
Baade, Björnstjern, Linus Mührel, and Anton O. Petrov. “Concluding Observations: How International Humanitarian Law Is Shaped to Meet the Challenges Arising from Areas of Limited Statehood – Theoretical Problems in Practice.” International Humanitarian Law in Areas of Limited Statehood, April 19, 2018, 217–40. https://doi.org/10.5771/9783845289557-217.
Bartosh, A. A. “Diplomacy in a Proxy War.” Diplomaticheskaja Sluzhba (Diplomatic Service), no. 1 (January 31, 2023): 33–42. https://doi.org/10.33920/VNE-01-2301-03.
Bates, Elizabeth Stubbins. “Towards Effective Military Training in International Humanitarian Law.” International Review of the Red Cross 96, no. 895–896 (December 1, 2014): 795–816. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1816383115000557.
Dimock, Michael. “US Response to Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine.” Pew Research Center, March 15, 2022. https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2022/03/15/public-expresses-mixed-views-of-u-s-response-to-russias-invasion-of-ukraine/.
Drian, Jean Yves Le. “Council Decision (CFSP) 2022/338 of 28 February 2022 on an Assistance Measure under the European Peace Facility for the Supply to the Ukrainian Armed Forces of Military Equipment, and Platforms, Designed to Deliver Lethal Force.” Official Journal of the European Union II L 60/1 (February 28, 2022). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dec/2022/338/oj.
Ferran, Lee. “The Weapons and Equipment the US Has given Ukraine so Far.” BreakingDefense.com, December 23, 2023. 0https://breakingdefense.com/2022/05/infographic-the-weapons-and-equipment-the-us-has-given-ukraine-so-far/.
Ghag, Ashutosh, Mihir Govande, and Shweta Shukla. “Evaluating Arms Transfers in the Russia-Ukraine Conflict in the Light of the Arms Trade Treaty, State Responsibility, and the Law of Neutrality.” International and Comparative Law Review 23, no. 1 (August 1, 2023): 139–81. https://doi.org/10.2478/iclr-2023-0007.
Gibb, Arthur, Mark Crescenzi, Tom Carsey, and Navin Bapat. “Arms for Reforms: The Effectiveness of U.S. Military Assistance at Encouraging Human Rights Reforms.” University of North Carolina, 2010.
Green, James A., Christian Henderson, and Tom Ruys. “Russia’s Attack on Ukraine and the Jus Ad Bellum.” Journal on the Use of Force and International Law. Routledge, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/20531702.2022.2056803.
Hagelin, Björn. “Foreign Military Sales.” Neutrality and Foreign Military Sales, June 19, 2019, 49–85. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429044656-4/FOREIGN-MILITARY-SALES-BJ.
Hathaway, Oona, and Scott Shapiro. “Supplying Arms to Ukraine Is Not an Act of War.” Lawfare, March 12, 2022. https://www.lawfaremedia.org/article/supplying-arms-ukraine-not-act-war.
Heller, Kevin Jon, and Lena Trabucco. “The Legality of Weapons Transfers to Ukraine Under International Law.” Journal of International Humanitarian Legal Studies 13, no. 2 (2022): 251–74. https://doi.org/10.1163/18781527-bja10053.
Kremte, Henok Ashagrey, and Henok Ashagrey Kremte. “Minimizing Human Suffering and Protecting Persons Affected by Conflict: A Critical Appraisal of the Compliance System of International Humanitarian Law.” Beijing Law Review 8, no. 4 (November 17, 2017): 440–50. https://doi.org/10.4236/BLR.2017.84024.
Margulies, Peter. “At War with Itself: The DoD Law of War Manual’s Tension between Doctrine and Practice on Target Verification and Precautions in Attack.” The United States Department of Defense Law of War Manual: Commentary and Critique, January 11, 2019, 201–24. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108659727.010.
Marsh, Nicholas. “The Availability Puzzle: Considering the Relationship between Arms and Violence Taking Place within States” 6 (2018).
Petersen, Niels. “The International Court of Justice and the Judicial Politics of Identifying Customary International Law.” European Journal of International Law 28, no. 2 (May 1, 2017): 357–85. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chx024.
Putin, Vladimir. “Address by the President of the Russian Federation.” President of Russia, February 21, 2022. http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/67828.
Putin, Vladimir. “Signing of Documents Recognising Donetsk and Lugansk People’s Republics.” President of Russia, February 21, 2022. http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/67829.
Ramya, Kritika. “The Interplay between Neutrality, Qualified Neutrality and Co-Belligerency in the Context of U.S. Intervention in the Russia-Ukraine War.” International and Comparative Law Review 23, no. 1 (August 1, 2023): 72–94. https://doi.org/10.2478/iclr-2023-0004.
Schabas, William. “The Use of Force in the Nicaraguan Cases.” Nicaragua Before the International Court of Justice: Impacts on International Law, January 1, 2018, 305–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62962-9_13.
Schmitt, Michael. “Providing Arms and Materiel to Ukraine: Neutrality, Co-Belligerency, and the Use of Force.” Articles of War, March 7, 2022. https://lieber.westpoint.edu/ukraine-neutrality-co-belligerency-use-of-force/.
Spagnolo, Andrea. “The Armed Attack Against Ukraine and the Italian Reaction From a Ius Ad Bellum Perspective.” The Italian Review of International and Comparative Law, December 26, 2022, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1163/27725650-02020012.
Spoljaric, Mirjana. “Customary International Humanitarian Law.” International Committee of the Red Cross, July 12, 2024. https://www.icrc.org/en/war-and-law/treaties-customary-law/customary-law.
Wilson, Rachel. “Ukraine Aid: Where the Money Is Coming From.” CNN, March 20, 2024. https://edition.cnn.com/2023/10/05/world/ukraine-money-military-aid-intl-dg/index.html.
Yu, Yuehan, Shirao Liu, Yuanqing Li, and Kaifang Shi. “Satellite Remotely Sensed Nighttime Lights Reveal Spatiotemporal Dynamics of the Ukrainian-Russian Conflict.” IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters 20 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1109/LGRS.2023.3290559.
Zugliani, Niccolò. “The Supply of Weapons to a Victim of Aggression: The Law of Neutrality in Light of the Conflict in Ukraine.” European Journal of International Law 35, no. 2 (May 1, 2024): 389–410. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chae019.
Legal Documents
The United Nation Charter. 1945
Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, 2001
Krass, Caroline. Department of Defense Law of War Manual (Updated July 2023). Department of Defense, 2023.