Torture and Its Legal Limits: Examining the Severity Threshold in International Humanitarian Law
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Abstract
This research investigates the legal and practical implications of the absence of a clearly defined threshold for torture within International Humanitarian Law (IHL), particularly concerning state compliance and the prosecution of offenders. While torture is unequivocally prohibited under various international legal instruments—including the Geneva Conventions, their Additional Protocols, and the Convention Against Torture (CAT)—there remains significant ambiguity in determining the severity required for an act to qualify as "torture" under IHL. The CAT defines torture as the intentional infliction of severe physical or mental pain or suffering, yet the Geneva Conventions do not specify the threshold of severity, leaving room for interpretative discrepancies and legal uncertainty. This legal gap complicates efforts to enforce accountability and prosecute perpetrators at international tribunals, as seen in landmark cases adjudicated by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), the International Criminal Court (ICC), and others. Through a normative-empirical legal research method, this study analyzes relevant treaties, customary international law, and judicial decisions to evaluate how torture has been defined, applied, and challenged in practice. It also explores how the undefined threshold hinders effective enforcement. The research concludes with specific legal and policy recommendations aimed at clarifying the definition of torture, enhancing state compliance, and strengthening international mechanisms to prevent and punish acts of torture in armed conflict and custodial settings.
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How to Cite
Heriyanto, D. S. N., & Temitope, B. F. (2026). Torture and Its Legal Limits: Examining the Severity Threshold in International Humanitarian Law. Padjadjaran Journal of International Law, 10(1), 15-30. https://doi.org/10.23920/pjil.v10i1.2419
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References
Books
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Dershowitz, Alan M. Why Terrorism Works: Understanding the Threat, Responding to the Challenge. Yale University Press, 2002. New Brunswick.
Dewulf, Steven. The Signature of Evil: (Re) Defining Torture in International Law. Intersentia; Distribution for the USA and Canada, International Specialized Book Services, 2011.
Jaffer, Jameel, and Amrit Singh. Administration of Torture: A Documentary Record from Washington to Abu Ghraib and Beyond. Columbia University Press, 2010.
Mavronicola, Natasa. Torture, Inhumanity and Degradation Under Article 3 of the ECHR: Absolute Rights and Absolute Wrongs. 1st ed. Hart Publishing, 2021.
Naʿīm, ʿAbdallāh Aḥmad an-. Toward an Islamic Reformation: Civil Liberties, Human Rights, and International Law. 1st ed. Contemporary Issues in the Middle East. Syracuse University, 2005.
Rawls, John. A Theory of Justice. Oxford University Press, 1999.
Rodley, Nigel, and Matt Pollard. The Treatment of Prisoners Under International Law. Oxford University Press, 2009.
Other Documents
Achmad, Yulianto, Nanik Prasetyoningsih, and M. Reformis Al Fath. “ASEAN Non-Intervention Principles: An Alternative Settlement Towards Human Rights Violation in Rohingya.” Jurnal Media Hukum 28, no. 1 (2021): 118–35. https://doi.org/10.18196/jmh.v28i1.10892.
Alexander, A. “A Short History of International Humanitarian Law.” European Journal of International Law 26, no. 1 (2015): 109–38. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chv002.
Bueno, Nicolas, Nadia Bernaz, Gabrielle Holly, and Olga Martin-Ortega. “The EU Directive on Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence (CSDDD): The Final Political Compromise.” Business and Human Rights Journal 9, no. 2 (2024): 294–300. https://doi.org/10.1017/bhj.2024.10.
Considine, Laura. “Contests of Legitimacy and Value: The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons and the Logic of Prohibition.” International Affairs 95, no. 5 (2019): 1075–92. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiz103.
Council of Europe. “Ethics and Human Rights Must Guide Any Use of Genome Editing Technologies in Human Beings - Human Rights and Biomedicine - Www.Coe.Int.” Human Rights and Biomedicine, November 30, 2018.
Cryer, Robert. “The Boundaries of Liability in International Criminal Law, or ‘Selectivity by Stealth.’” Journal of Conflict & Security Law 6, no. 1 (2001): 3–31.
De C Williams, Amanda C., and Jannie Van Der Merwe. “The Psychological Impact of Torture.” British Journal of Pain 7, no. 2 (2013): 101–6. https://doi.org/10.1177/2049463713483596.
Dörmann, Knut, and Louis Maresca. “The International Committee of the Red Cross and Its Contribution to the Development of International Humanitarian Law in Specialized Instruments.” Chicago Journal of International Law 5, no. 1 (2004).
Evans, Malcolm D. “Getting to Grips with Torture.” International and Comparative Law Quarterly 51, no. 2 (2002): 365–83. https://doi.org/10.1093/iclq/51.2.365.
Felix. “Accountability Denied The Absence Of Investigation And Punishment Of Torture In Israel.” Stop Torture, 2024. https://stoptorture.org.il/en/accountability-denied-the-absence-of-investigation-and-punishment-of-torture-in-israel/.
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Human Rights Watch. Schools Are Failing Boys Too: The Taliban’s Impact on Boys’ Education in Afghanistan. Human Rights Watch, 2023. https://www.hrw.org/report/2023/12/06/schools-are-failing-boys-too/talibans-impact-boys-education-afghanistan.
ICRC. “Guardian of International Humanitarian Law.” June 26, 2024. https://www.icrc.org/en/article/guardian-international-humanitarian-law.
Joehan G. “Afghanistan: Death in Slow Motion: Women and Girls Under Taliban Rule.” Amnesty International, July 27, 2022. https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa11/5685/2022/en/.
Nawabi, F. Violation of Human and Women’s Rights by the Taliban in Afghanistan: The Taliban’s Takeover and Its Consequences. Raoul Wallenberg Institute of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law, 2023.
Nowak, Manfred. “What Practices Constitute Torture? US and UN Standards.” Human Rights Quarterly 28, no. 4 (2006): 809–41. https://doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2006.0050.
Opijnen, Kerime vn. The Element of Severe Pain in the Definition of Torture: Guidelines for Armenia. September 3, 2021.
Palladino, Nicola, and Mauro Santaniello. “IANA Functions, ICANN, and the DNS War.” In Legitimacy, Power, and Inequalities in the Multistakeholder Internet Governance, by Nicola Palladino and Mauro Santaniello. Springer International Publishing, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56131-4_3.
Ruiz Resa, Josefa Dolores. “Legal Culture on Justice and Truth: The Tribunals of Inquiry About Bloody Sunday.” The Age of Human Rights Journal, no. 15 (December 2020): 73–104. https://doi.org/10.17561/tahrj.v15.5777.
US Departement. Nomination of John a. Rizzo to Be General Counsel of the Central Intelligence Agency. New York, 1987. https://www.congress.gov/110/chrg/shrg41205/CHRG-110shrg41205.htm.
Wagner, Johann. “The European Union’s Model of Integrated Border Management: Preventing Transnational Threats, Cross-Border Crime and Irregular Migration in the Context of the EU’s Security Policies and Strategies.” Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 59, no. 4 (2021): 424–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/14662043.2021.1999650.
Warasti, Nuraini Sekar, Haya Qonita, and Badrus Sholeh. “The Impact of United States of America Intervention On Israeli-Palestinian Conflict.” Global Political Studies Journal 6, no. 1 (2022): 47–57. https://doi.org/10.34010/gpsjournal.v6i1.6089.
Yotova, Rumiana. “Regulating Genome Editing Under International Human Rights Law.” International and Comparative Law Quarterly 69, no. 3 (2020): 653–84. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020589320000184.
Legal documents
Aydin V. Turkey, 42361/17, 43092/17, 50657/17, 58371/17, 9357/18 (European Court of Human Rights 1997).
Bati and Others V. Turkey, No. 61805/00 (European Court of Human Rights 2004).
Cestaro v. Italy, No. 6884/11 (European Court of Human Rights April 7, 2015).
Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment of United Nation of Human Rights (UNHR) (1984).
Egmez v. Cyprus, No. 36243/13, 58234/13, 58891/13, 59100/13, 64345/13, 77071/13, 80984/13 (European Court of Human Rights 2000).
Geneva Convention of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) (1977).
Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field (Lieber Code) (1954).
Ireland V. the United Kingdom (Révision), No. 5310/71., No. 5310/71 (European Court of Human Rights 2018).
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (2002).
S. Rept. 113-288 - Laporan Komite Senat (1989).
Selmouni v. France, 26856/06, 26449/08, 61815/09, 30395/10, 50999/10, 58287/10, 63120/10, 36942/11 (European Court of Human Rights 1999).
The Public Committee Against Torture in Israel V. The Government of Israel, Summary of Judgment, Ruling/Non-UN Documen (Israeli Supreme Court 1977).
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948).
Baker, Dennis J. The Right Not to Be Criminalized: Demarcating Criminal Law’s Authority. 1st ed. Applied Legal Philosophy. Routledge, 2016.
Dershowitz, Alan M. Why Terrorism Works: Understanding the Threat, Responding to the Challenge. Yale University Press, 2002. New Brunswick.
Dewulf, Steven. The Signature of Evil: (Re) Defining Torture in International Law. Intersentia; Distribution for the USA and Canada, International Specialized Book Services, 2011.
Jaffer, Jameel, and Amrit Singh. Administration of Torture: A Documentary Record from Washington to Abu Ghraib and Beyond. Columbia University Press, 2010.
Mavronicola, Natasa. Torture, Inhumanity and Degradation Under Article 3 of the ECHR: Absolute Rights and Absolute Wrongs. 1st ed. Hart Publishing, 2021.
Naʿīm, ʿAbdallāh Aḥmad an-. Toward an Islamic Reformation: Civil Liberties, Human Rights, and International Law. 1st ed. Contemporary Issues in the Middle East. Syracuse University, 2005.
Rawls, John. A Theory of Justice. Oxford University Press, 1999.
Rodley, Nigel, and Matt Pollard. The Treatment of Prisoners Under International Law. Oxford University Press, 2009.
Other Documents
Achmad, Yulianto, Nanik Prasetyoningsih, and M. Reformis Al Fath. “ASEAN Non-Intervention Principles: An Alternative Settlement Towards Human Rights Violation in Rohingya.” Jurnal Media Hukum 28, no. 1 (2021): 118–35. https://doi.org/10.18196/jmh.v28i1.10892.
Alexander, A. “A Short History of International Humanitarian Law.” European Journal of International Law 26, no. 1 (2015): 109–38. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chv002.
Bueno, Nicolas, Nadia Bernaz, Gabrielle Holly, and Olga Martin-Ortega. “The EU Directive on Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence (CSDDD): The Final Political Compromise.” Business and Human Rights Journal 9, no. 2 (2024): 294–300. https://doi.org/10.1017/bhj.2024.10.
Considine, Laura. “Contests of Legitimacy and Value: The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons and the Logic of Prohibition.” International Affairs 95, no. 5 (2019): 1075–92. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiz103.
Council of Europe. “Ethics and Human Rights Must Guide Any Use of Genome Editing Technologies in Human Beings - Human Rights and Biomedicine - Www.Coe.Int.” Human Rights and Biomedicine, November 30, 2018.
Cryer, Robert. “The Boundaries of Liability in International Criminal Law, or ‘Selectivity by Stealth.’” Journal of Conflict & Security Law 6, no. 1 (2001): 3–31.
De C Williams, Amanda C., and Jannie Van Der Merwe. “The Psychological Impact of Torture.” British Journal of Pain 7, no. 2 (2013): 101–6. https://doi.org/10.1177/2049463713483596.
Dörmann, Knut, and Louis Maresca. “The International Committee of the Red Cross and Its Contribution to the Development of International Humanitarian Law in Specialized Instruments.” Chicago Journal of International Law 5, no. 1 (2004).
Evans, Malcolm D. “Getting to Grips with Torture.” International and Comparative Law Quarterly 51, no. 2 (2002): 365–83. https://doi.org/10.1093/iclq/51.2.365.
Felix. “Accountability Denied The Absence Of Investigation And Punishment Of Torture In Israel.” Stop Torture, 2024. https://stoptorture.org.il/en/accountability-denied-the-absence-of-investigation-and-punishment-of-torture-in-israel/.
Heller, Kevin Jon. “What Is an International Crime? (A Revisionist History).” SSRN Electronic Journal, ahead of print, 2016. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2836889.
Human Rights Watch. Schools Are Failing Boys Too: The Taliban’s Impact on Boys’ Education in Afghanistan. Human Rights Watch, 2023. https://www.hrw.org/report/2023/12/06/schools-are-failing-boys-too/talibans-impact-boys-education-afghanistan.
ICRC. “Guardian of International Humanitarian Law.” June 26, 2024. https://www.icrc.org/en/article/guardian-international-humanitarian-law.
Joehan G. “Afghanistan: Death in Slow Motion: Women and Girls Under Taliban Rule.” Amnesty International, July 27, 2022. https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa11/5685/2022/en/.
Nawabi, F. Violation of Human and Women’s Rights by the Taliban in Afghanistan: The Taliban’s Takeover and Its Consequences. Raoul Wallenberg Institute of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law, 2023.
Nowak, Manfred. “What Practices Constitute Torture? US and UN Standards.” Human Rights Quarterly 28, no. 4 (2006): 809–41. https://doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2006.0050.
Opijnen, Kerime vn. The Element of Severe Pain in the Definition of Torture: Guidelines for Armenia. September 3, 2021.
Palladino, Nicola, and Mauro Santaniello. “IANA Functions, ICANN, and the DNS War.” In Legitimacy, Power, and Inequalities in the Multistakeholder Internet Governance, by Nicola Palladino and Mauro Santaniello. Springer International Publishing, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56131-4_3.
Ruiz Resa, Josefa Dolores. “Legal Culture on Justice and Truth: The Tribunals of Inquiry About Bloody Sunday.” The Age of Human Rights Journal, no. 15 (December 2020): 73–104. https://doi.org/10.17561/tahrj.v15.5777.
US Departement. Nomination of John a. Rizzo to Be General Counsel of the Central Intelligence Agency. New York, 1987. https://www.congress.gov/110/chrg/shrg41205/CHRG-110shrg41205.htm.
Wagner, Johann. “The European Union’s Model of Integrated Border Management: Preventing Transnational Threats, Cross-Border Crime and Irregular Migration in the Context of the EU’s Security Policies and Strategies.” Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 59, no. 4 (2021): 424–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/14662043.2021.1999650.
Warasti, Nuraini Sekar, Haya Qonita, and Badrus Sholeh. “The Impact of United States of America Intervention On Israeli-Palestinian Conflict.” Global Political Studies Journal 6, no. 1 (2022): 47–57. https://doi.org/10.34010/gpsjournal.v6i1.6089.
Yotova, Rumiana. “Regulating Genome Editing Under International Human Rights Law.” International and Comparative Law Quarterly 69, no. 3 (2020): 653–84. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020589320000184.
Legal documents
Aydin V. Turkey, 42361/17, 43092/17, 50657/17, 58371/17, 9357/18 (European Court of Human Rights 1997).
Bati and Others V. Turkey, No. 61805/00 (European Court of Human Rights 2004).
Cestaro v. Italy, No. 6884/11 (European Court of Human Rights April 7, 2015).
Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment of United Nation of Human Rights (UNHR) (1984).
Egmez v. Cyprus, No. 36243/13, 58234/13, 58891/13, 59100/13, 64345/13, 77071/13, 80984/13 (European Court of Human Rights 2000).
Geneva Convention of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) (1977).
Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field (Lieber Code) (1954).
Ireland V. the United Kingdom (Révision), No. 5310/71., No. 5310/71 (European Court of Human Rights 2018).
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (2002).
S. Rept. 113-288 - Laporan Komite Senat (1989).
Selmouni v. France, 26856/06, 26449/08, 61815/09, 30395/10, 50999/10, 58287/10, 63120/10, 36942/11 (European Court of Human Rights 1999).
The Public Committee Against Torture in Israel V. The Government of Israel, Summary of Judgment, Ruling/Non-UN Documen (Israeli Supreme Court 1977).
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948).